Fundamentals Of Criminology

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The Positive (or Positivist) School of Criminology, which emerged in the late 19th century, was a shift from the Classical School's focus on free will. Positivism argues that criminal behavior is determined by biological, psychological, and social factors, and it advocates for a scientific study of the criminal.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's identify the affiliations of the criminologists listed:

A. Raffaele Garofalo, B. Cesare Lombroso, and C. Enrico Ferri are together known as the "Holy Trinity" or the "Italian School" of criminology. They are the founding fathers of the Positive School.
Lombroso focused on biological determinism (the "born criminal").
Ferri emphasized the role of social and economic factors in addition to biological ones.
Garofalo contributed with his concept of "natural crimes" and sociological definitions.
D. Richard Quinney is a prominent American sociologist and a leading figure in the Radical or Critical School of Criminology of the 1960s and 70s. This school views crime as a product of capitalist class struggle and the state's power to define what is criminal.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo are the main exponents of the Positive School. Richard Quinney belongs to a different, later school of thought. Therefore, A, B, and C are the correct choices.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question describes a type of malicious software (malware) that remains dormant until a specific condition is met. This condition can be a particular date and time or a specific action taken by a user.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's analyze the given options:

Email Bomb: This is a form of cyber attack that involves sending a massive volume of emails to a specific address to overwhelm the server and cause a denial of service. It does not involve a hidden program with a trigger.
Logic Bomb: This is the correct term. A logic bomb is a piece of code intentionally inserted into a software system that will execute a malicious function when specified conditions are met. A "time bomb" is a subtype of a logic bomb that is triggered by a specific date or time.
Adipocere Bomb: This is not a term used in cybersecurity. Adipocere relates to the waxy substance formed during the decomposition of fatty tissue in dead bodies.
Antivirus related cyber malfunctioning: This is a general descriptive phrase, not the name of a specific type of malware.
Step 3: Final Answer:
The description perfectly matches the definition of a Logic Bomb, which is designed to execute upon a logical trigger.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
This question requires matching major criminological and philosophical theories with their respective proponents.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's match each theory in LIST-I with its author in LIST-II.

A. Four Laws of Association: The ancient Greek philosopher I. Aristotle proposed the original laws of association (contiguity, frequency, similarity, and contrast) to explain how ideas are linked in the mind. These concepts later influenced associationist theories in psychology and criminology.
B. Theory of Differential Association: This is one of the most famous theories in criminology, stating that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others. It was proposed by III. Sutherland (Edwin Sutherland).
C. Theory of Labelling: This theory focuses on how the social response to an act, by labelling it as 'deviant', can lead individuals to internalize that label and continue their deviant behavior. A prominent sociologist associated with this theory is II. Howard Becker.
D. Integrated Theory of Anti-social Behaviour: There are many integrated theories. One such theory, which integrates concepts from various disciplines to explain crime, was developed by IV. Mathew Robinson.
Step 3: Final Answer:
The correct matching is:
A I
B III
C II
D IV
This corresponds to the option A - I, B - III, C - II, D - IV.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question describes a specific criminological theory developed by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, who were part of the Chicago School of Sociology. Their work focused on how urban environments, particularly specific neighborhoods, influence crime rates.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:

Shaw and McKay, in their study of Chicago, found that crime rates remained high in certain inner-city neighborhoods regardless of which ethnic group lived there. This led them to conclude that it was the characteristics of the neighborhood itself, not the people, that caused crime.
They argued that in these socially disorganized areas, a delinquent subculture developed. The values, norms, and skills for criminal behavior were passed down from older residents to younger ones, generation after generation.
This process of passing down delinquent traditions is precisely what is known as Cultural Transmission Theory. It is an extension of their broader Social Disorganization Theory.
Social Disengagement Theory is a theory of aging, not crime.
Neighbourhood influence of crime theory is a descriptive phrase, but the specific name for their concept is Cultural Transmission.
Crime Syndicate Theory relates to organized crime, not the general transmission of delinquency in a neighborhood.
Step 3: Final Answer:
The theory that delinquent traditions are transmitted through generations in specific neighborhoods, as proposed by Shaw and McKay, is known as the Cultural Transmission Theory.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
This is a matching question that requires associating terms from different fields (medicine, cyber security, law, and penology) with their correct categories.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's match each term in LIST-I with its corresponding concept in LIST-II.

A. Tolerance: In a medical or pharmacological context, tolerance refers to a person's diminished response to a drug that is the result of repeated use. A person with tolerance needs to take higher doses of a drug to achieve the same effect. This is a key concept in II. Substance Abuse.
B. Trojan Horse: This is a type of malicious software or malware that looks legitimate but can take control of your computer. It is a form of I. Cyber Crime.
C. Article 14 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to equality before the law. This is a IV. Fundamental Right.
D. Classification of prisoners (e.g., based on the severity of the crime, age, gender, security risk) is a fundamental principle of prison management and a key aspect of the III. Correctional System.
Step 3: Final Answer:
The correct matching is:
A II
B I
C IV
D III
This corresponds to the option A - II, B - I, C - IV, D - III.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice is a global forum held every five years to discuss issues related to crime prevention, criminal justice, and international cooperation. The question requires arranging four of these congresses in chronological order.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's identify the year each congress was held:

C. The Congress in London: This was the Second UN Congress, held in 1960.
B. The Congress in Stockholm: This was the Third UN Congress, held in 1965.
A. The Congress in Kyoto: The Fourth UN Congress was held in Kyoto in 1970. (Note: The Fourteenth Congress was also held in Kyoto in 2021, but in the sequence of options, the 1970 congress fits chronologically).
D. The Congress in Milan: This was the Seventh UN Congress, held in 1985.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Arranging these from earliest to latest based on the years:
1. London (1960) C
2. Stockholm (1965) B
3. Kyoto (1970) A
4. Milan (1985) D
The correct sequence is C, B, A, D.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
'Recidivism' is a core concept in criminology that refers to a person's relapse into criminal behavior, often after the person receives sanctions or undergoes intervention for a previous crime. It is a measure used to assess the effectiveness of rehabilitation and deterrence efforts.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's analyze the given options:
(A) This describes a philosophical stance in criminology, not recidivism.
(B) This describes a form of deceptive behavior by an accused person, not the act of reoffending.
(C) This is the precise definition of recidivism. It refers to the act of an offender committing another crime after being punished or treated for a prior offense. It signifies a return to criminal ways.
(D) This describes a psychological phenomenon or a specific behavioral pattern, but it is not the definition of recidivism.
Step 3: Final Answer:
The term 'Recidivism' directly implies the habit or act of relapsing into crime by offenders who have already been through the justice system.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks to identify the correct descriptions of alcoholism from a list of attributes, covering social, legal, and medical perspectives.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's evaluate each statement:

A. Social problem: This is true. Alcoholism has significant negative consequences for society, including family breakdown, domestic violence, loss of productivity, and public health costs.
B. Victimless crime: This is a contentious but often used classification in criminology. A "victimless crime" is an illegal act that typically involves consenting adults and lacks a direct, complaining victim (e.g., drug use, gambling). While the consequences of alcoholism (like drunk driving) certainly create victims, the act of alcohol abuse itself is sometimes categorized this way. Given the options, it is likely considered true for the purpose of this question.
C. Violent, organized crime: This is false. Alcoholism is a health disorder and a social problem; it is not a category of crime like gang activity or trafficking. While alcoholism can be a contributing factor to violence, it is not synonymous with violent or organized crime.
D. Problem with long term physical and mental health implications: This is true. Medically, alcoholism is a chronic disease that leads to severe health issues like liver cirrhosis, cardiovascular diseases, neurological damage, and various mental health disorders.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Statement C is definitively incorrect. Eliminating all options that include C leaves only option 1. Therefore, within the context of the question, alcoholism is considered a social problem, a victimless crime (in a specific sense), and a problem with long-term health implications.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question describes a cybercrime that relies heavily on social engineering, where a scammer builds trust with a victim over a period of time before convincing them to invest money in a fraudulent scheme.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's analyze the options:

(A) Worm hole: This is a concept from theoretical physics, not cybercrime.
(B) Pig Slaughter scam (or Pig Butchering scam): This is the correct answer. The name comes from the practice of "fattening up the pig before slaughter." In this long-con scam, the criminal develops a relationship (often romantic) with the victim over weeks or months, building a high level of trust. Once trust is established, the scammer introduces a supposedly lucrative investment opportunity (usually in cryptocurrency), convinces the victim to invest, and then disappears with the money. This method relies entirely on the victim believing in the offender.
(C) Web site attack: This is a broad term for an attack on a website and doesn't necessarily involve building personal trust with a victim.
(D) Virus attack: This is a technical attack where malicious software infects a system. It doesn't rely on the victim's belief or trust in the offender in the way described.
Step 3: Final Answer:
The 'Pig Slaughter scam' is a specific type of cybercrime that involves a long-term trust-building exercise before the victim is manipulated into parting with their money.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
Radical Criminology, also known as Critical or Marxist Criminology, is a school of thought that emerged in the 1960s. It analyzes crime and the justice system from the perspective of social class, power, and inequality.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's analyze the characteristics:

A: This is true. Radical criminology rejects theories that blame crime on individual pathology (like biological or psychological defects) and instead focuses on the role of societal structures.
B: This is true. It argues that crime is not just a feature of society, but a consequence of the power dynamics within it, particularly the conflict between the ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat). The powerful define what is criminal to protect their interests.
C: This is true. It views law not as a neutral or just code of conduct, but as an instrument of the ruling class used to maintain social and economic order and suppress dissent. It questions the legitimacy of the legal system itself.
D: This is false. The concept of 'free-will' is the central tenet of the Classical School of Criminology (associated with Beccaria and Bentham). Radical criminology is deterministic, arguing that social and economic conditions, not free choice, compel people towards criminal behavior.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Statements A, B, and C are core characteristics of radical criminology, while D is a characteristic of the Classical School. Thus, the correct option is A, B and C only.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question describes the practice of concealing a file, message, or image within another file. We need to identify the correct technical term for this practice from the given options.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's define the options:

Secondary cyber crime: This is not a standard or recognized term in cybersecurity or law.
Cyber strangulation: This is not a recognized technical term.
Steganography: This is the art and science of hiding information by embedding messages within other, seemingly harmless messages or files (the 'cover' file). The practice of hiding an illicit image inside a legitimate-looking image or audio file is a classic example of steganography.
Stenography: This is the practice of writing in shorthand. It is completely unrelated to computers or hiding digital files.
Step 3: Final Answer:
The technique of hiding a file within another file is correctly known as steganography.