Tribal Society

A key reason for Marriage by Capture in tribal communities is the inability to pay the bride price. In societies where the bride price is a significant requirement for marriage, young men who cannot afford this price may resort to capturing a bride as a means of marriage. This practice often arises in communities where resources are scarce, and paying for a bride is financially out of reach.
Step 1: The economic impact of bride price.
In many tribal communities, the bride price is considered an essential part of marriage. It serves as a way to compensate the bride’s family for the loss of a daughter and to affirm the groom's ability to support her. However, the high cost of the bride price can be prohibitive, especially for young men who do not have the financial means. This leads to practices like marriage by capture, where the groom forcibly takes the bride without paying the bride price.
Step 2: The ceremonial aspect of marriage by capture.
Although it may seem like an act of force, marriage by capture often involves ceremonial aspects, where the community may support or condone the act. In some tribes, this practice is ritualistic, and the captured bride may later be accepted into the groom's family after completing certain rites and rituals.

In Marriage by Trial, a young man must prove his courage, strength, or ability to provide through a competition or challenge. These trials may vary from physical contests, intellectual challenges, or tasks designed to demonstrate the young man’s qualities as a potential husband. The aim is to assess his character and capabilities before granting him the right to choose his bride.
Step 1: The qualities tested in marriage by trial.
The key qualities that a young man must prove in marriage by trial are often related to his physical strength, bravery, endurance, and social competence. These trials are not just about proving physical fitness but also about demonstrating qualities that are considered essential for a successful marriage, such as leadership and resilience.
Step 2: The types of trials involved.
The trials can take various forms, depending on the community. In some cultures, it might be a physical contest like wrestling or a race. In others, the trial may involve demonstrating skill in hunting, farming, or leadership. The trial helps the family and the community determine if the young man is capable of taking responsibility for a wife and a family.

The tribal marriage practice that avoids paying a bride price by exchanging sisters is Marriage by Exchange. In this practice, the families of the bride and groom exchange daughters (or sisters) in lieu of paying a traditional bride price. This arrangement helps both families avoid the financial burden of paying a high price for the bride while ensuring that both families benefit from the alliance.
Step 1: The cultural reasoning behind marriage by exchange.
Marriage by exchange is rooted in the concept of reciprocity, where each family exchanges something of value. In many tribal societies, the bride price is a significant financial expense, and instead of paying this fee, families exchange sisters to establish alliances. This practice allows both families to maintain their social and economic standing while also upholding the cultural tradition of arranged marriages.
Step 2: The role of sisters in marriage by exchange.
The exchange of sisters can also be seen as a way to strengthen bonds between families. By exchanging female family members, both families are linked through mutual obligations and support. This exchange can help build a network of reciprocal relationships that benefit the families involved, ensuring ongoing cooperation and shared resources.

One tribal marriage practice involving a competition is Marriage by Trial. In this practice, a young man is tested to prove his strength, courage, or other virtues through a competitive event. This could include physical contests, hunting skills, or other trials designed to prove his suitability as a partner for marriage. The purpose of this competition is to demonstrate that the young man is worthy of taking a bride, and if he wins, he gains the right to choose his bride.
Step 1: Understanding the cultural significance of marriage by trial.
Marriage by trial is an important tradition in various tribal communities, where physical prowess, mental toughness, or certain social skills are considered vital attributes for a man to marry. By winning the trial, the young man proves his worthiness to marry and secures his place in the community’s social and marital system. This practice has deep cultural roots in societies that value strength, bravery, and a competitive spirit.
Step 2: The challenge aspect of marriage by trial.
In some cases, the trials can be intense, ranging from physical feats to tests of endurance. This might include a hunt, wrestling, or even a ceremonial fight, depending on the traditions of the tribe. The idea is to demonstrate that the young man can protect his bride and provide for the family. Winning the trial often grants him not only a wife but also social respect within the community.

Step 1: Understanding division of labour in tribal societies.
In tribal societies, the division of labour is typically based on age and sex. Different age groups and genders perform specific roles and tasks, often guided by traditional norms. For example, men might engage in hunting or heavy physical work, while women are responsible for gathering food or domestic duties. Similarly, tasks might vary for younger or older individuals.
Step 2: Conclusion.
Thus, the division of labour in tribal societies is based on both age and sex, corresponding to option (C).

Step 1: Understanding J.H. Hutton's perspective.
J.H. Hutton, a prominent anthropologist, classified the tribals into various categories. He referred to them as primitive tribals to highlight their lifestyles, which were considered to be in a less-developed or non-modern stage, often based on subsistence farming, hunting, and gathering.
Step 2: Explanation of other terms.

- Girijan is a term used in some parts of India to refer to tribals or indigenous people, particularly in Andhra Pradesh, but it is not the term J.H. Hutton used.
- Scheduled tribes is a formal classification used by the government for tribals who are recognized for affirmative action, but J.H. Hutton did not use this term in his work.
- Backward Hindus refers to certain castes within Hindu society, but this term is unrelated to Hutton’s classification of tribals.
Step 3: Conclusion.
Thus, the correct answer is Primitive tribals (B), as it aligns with Hutton’s terminology.