Modern Indian History

The Civil Disobedience Movement, launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930, was a pivotal phase in India's struggle for independence. It marked a significant escalation from the Non-Cooperation Movement of the early 1920s, involving the deliberate and non-violent breaking of laws.
Causes of the Civil Disobedience Movement:
\begin{enumerate}
The Simon Commission (1928): The British government appointed an all-white commission under Sir John Simon to review the constitutional setup in India. The exclusion of Indians from the commission was seen as an insult and led to widespread protests and boycotts under the slogan "Simon Go Back."
Rejection of the Nehru Report (1928): Indian political parties, in response to the Simon Commission, drafted a constitutional framework known as the Nehru Report, which demanded dominion status for India. The British government's lack of response to this demand caused deep dissatisfaction.
Lahore Congress Session and 'Purna Swaraj' (1929): At its Lahore session, the Indian National Congress, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, declared 'Purna Swaraj' (complete independence) as its goal. It was decided that 26th January 1930 would be celebrated as Independence Day, and a nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement would be launched.
Rejection of Gandhi's 11-Point Ultimatum: Before launching the movement, Gandhi presented an 11-point ultimatum to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, which included demands like the abolition of the salt tax, reduction of land revenue, and release of political prisoners. The Viceroy's rejection of these demands set the stage for the movement.
Economic Hardship: The Great Depression of 1929 had a severe impact on the Indian economy. Prices of agricultural produce plummeted, leading to immense hardship for peasants and farmers, creating a fertile ground for a mass movement. \end{enumerate} Results and Significance of the Movement:
\begin{enumerate}
The Dandi March and Widespread Defiance: The movement began with Gandhi's historic Dandi March (Salt March) in March-April 1930, where he and his followers broke the salt law. This act of defiance inspired millions across India to break the salt law and other oppressive laws.
Mass Participation: The movement saw an unprecedented level of mass participation. People from all walks of life, including peasants, workers, and students, joined in. A notable feature was the large-scale participation of women, who came out of their homes to take part in processions and picketing.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): The widespread impact of the movement compelled the British government to negotiate. Lord Irwin signed a pact with Mahatma Gandhi in March 1931. As part of the pact, the government agreed to release political prisoners, and the Congress agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement and participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London.
Second Round Table Conference and Resumption of Movement: Gandhi attended the conference as the sole representative of the Congress, but the talks failed. Upon his return, he found that the government had resumed its repressive policies, leading to the resumption of the movement in 1932, which continued until 1934.
Increased Political Consciousness: Although the movement did not achieve immediate independence, it significantly radicalized the Indian masses. It instilled a new sense of confidence and a determination to fight for freedom. It demonstrated the power of non-violent satyagraha on a massive scale.
Foundation for Future Reforms: The movement put immense pressure on the British, which eventually contributed to the passing of the Government of India Act of 1935, which granted a degree of provincial autonomy. \end{enumerate}

The Quit India Movement, or the 'Bharat Chhodo Andolan', was the final and most intense mass struggle for freedom launched by the Indian National Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. It began on August 8, 1942, during the height of World War II, with the core demand for an "orderly British withdrawal" from India.
Background and Causes:
The movement was a culmination of growing frustration with British policies. The primary cause was the failure of the Cripps Mission in March-April 1942. The mission's proposal of dominion status after the war was rejected by all major Indian political parties as insufficient. Gandhi famously described it as a "post-dated cheque on a crashing bank." Furthermore, the ongoing World War II was causing immense hardship for the Indian people, including high inflation and shortages of essential goods. The imminent threat of a Japanese invasion of India also created a sense of urgency, with Gandhi and other leaders believing that the presence of the British in India was an invitation to the Japanese.
The Launch of the Movement and Gandhi's "Do or Die" Call:
On August 8, 1942, at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay, the All-India Congress Committee passed the 'Quit India' resolution. In his historic speech on this occasion, Mahatma Gandhi gave the clarion call to the nation: "Do or Die." He urged the people to act as if they were free and not to rest until freedom was achieved. He stated, "We shall either free India or die in the attempt."
Progress and Nature of the Movement:
The British government responded with unprecedented force. In the early hours of August 9, Gandhi and all other prominent Congress leaders were arrested. This sudden removal of leadership did not crush the movement; instead, it led to a spontaneous and widespread popular revolt. The movement was characterized by:

Mass Upsurge: People across the country engaged in hartals (strikes), processions, and demonstrations. There were widespread attacks on symbols of British authority, such as police stations, post offices, and railway lines.
Underground Activities: With the mainstream leaders in jail, a new group of younger leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, and Aruna Asaf Ali emerged. They organized an underground movement, which included broadcasting on a clandestine radio station and coordinating acts of sabotage.
Parallel Governments (\textit{Jatiya Sarkars}): In several parts of the country, local parallel governments were established after overthrowing British rule. The most prominent examples were in Satara (Maharashtra), which lasted for a long time, and in Tamluk (Bengal) and Ballia (Uttar Pradesh).
Suppression and Significance:
The British suppressed the movement with brute force. Mass arrests, lathi charges, and firings were common, leading to the death of thousands. Despite being crushed by 1944, the Quit India Movement was of immense significance. It demonstrated the depth of nationalist feeling in the country and the people's capacity for struggle and sacrifice. The movement made it unequivocally clear to the British government that their rule in India could not be maintained on the basis of Indian consent, and that they would have to quit India once the war was over. It marked the final, decisive phase of India's struggle for independence, ensuring that freedom was no longer a matter of negotiation but an inevitability.

The events related to the given historical dates are as follows:


[(i)] 563 B.C.: The birth of Gautama Buddha at Lumbini, Nepal.
[(ii)] 527 B.C.: The traditional year of the Nirvana (death) of Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, at Pavapuri in Bihar.
[(iii)] 305 B.C.: The Seleucid–Mauryan war, where Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus I Nicator. The conflict ended with a treaty where Seleucus ceded territories to the Mauryan Empire.
[(iv)] 78 A.D.: The beginning of the Saka Era, which is widely associated with the accession of the Kushan emperor Kanishka the Great.
[(v)] 319 A.D.: The beginning of the Gupta Era, marking the accession of Chandragupta I as the first Maharajadhiraja (king of kings) of the Gupta Dynasty.
[(vi)] 380 A.D.: The accession of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) to the Gupta throne. His reign is often considered the golden age of the Gupta Empire.
[(vii)] 712 A.D.: The invasion of Sindh by the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim, leading to the establishment of Arab rule in the region.
[(viii)] 1540 A.D.: The Battle of Kannauj, where Sher Shah Suri defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun, forcing him into exile and establishing the Sur Empire.
[(ix)] 1565 A.D.: The Battle of Talikota, where an alliance of the Deccan Sultanates decisively defeated the Vijayanagara Empire, leading to its decline.
[(x)] 1885 A.D.: The formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in Bombay, which became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement.

The statement that the Revolt of 1857 was the "first freedom struggle of India" is a significant interpretation of the event, famously articulated by V.D. Savarkar in his book 'The Indian War of Independence, 1857'. This perspective is based on several key arguments:


Unprecedented Scale and Geographical Spread: Unlike previous uprisings, which were localized, the 1857 Revolt engulfed a vast area of Northern and Central India, from Delhi and Awadh to Bihar and Bundelkhand.
Widespread Participation: It was not just a military mutiny. It saw the participation of diverse sections of society including rulers of princely states (like Rani Lakshmibai and Nana Saheb), landlords (zamindars), peasants, artisans, and religious leaders, both Hindu and Muslim.
Common Enemy and Goal: Despite having different grievances, all participants were united by a common goal: to overthrow the rule of the British East India Company. This shared objective gave it the character of a national struggle against a foreign power.
Challenge to British Authority: The revolt posed the most serious challenge to British power in India since its inception. It shook the foundations of the Company's rule and led to its dissolution, with the British Crown taking direct control of India in 1858.
While some historians argue that it lacked a unified command and a forward-looking vision for a new India, and thus call it a "sepoy mutiny" or a series of disconnected revolts, its scale, popular participation, and clear anti-colonial objective justify its characterization as the first major struggle for India's freedom.

The Champaran Satyagraha of 1917, Mahatma Gandhi's first major satyagraha movement in India, was launched to address the grievances of the tenant farmers (ryots) in the Champaran district of Bihar. The primary causes were rooted in the exploitative practices of the European indigo planters.
1. The Tinkathia System: This was the most significant cause. Under this system, the European planters forced the Indian farmers to cultivate indigo on 3/20th (three kathas out of twenty) of their land. This was a compulsory obligation, and the choice of land was often made by the planters, usually the most fertile parts.
2. Exploitative Pricing: The planters fixed the price for the indigo, which was extremely low and non-remunerative for the farmers. The farmers were bound by contract and could not sell their produce on the open market.
3. Illegal Dues and Fines (Abwabs): The planters imposed numerous illegal taxes and fines on the tenants for various pretexts. This placed an unbearable financial burden on the already impoverished farmers.
4. Coercion and Oppression: Farmers who resisted indigo cultivation or demanded fair prices were subjected to harassment, physical intimidation, and legal persecution by the planters, who enjoyed significant power and influence over the local administration.
5. Impact of German Dyes: By the early 20th century, German synthetic dyes had made indigo cultivation unprofitable. To release the farmers from their obligation to grow indigo, the planters demanded exorbitant rents and lump-sum payments as compensation, further exacerbating the farmers' plight.
These conditions led Raj Kumar Shukla, a local farmer, to persuade Mahatma Gandhi to visit Champaran and lead the struggle against this injustice.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks for the year when the infamous Rowlatt Act was enacted by the British Indian government.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act, was a legislative act passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in Delhi. It was officially passed in March 1919.
The act was based on the recommendations of the Sedition Committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt. It gave the government immense powers to repress political activities and allowed for the detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
This "black act" was met with widespread anger and discontent among Indians. Mahatma Gandhi launched a nationwide hartal (strike), known as the Rowlatt Satyagraha, in protest. The tragic Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar on April 13, 1919, was a direct consequence of protests against this act.
Step 3: Final Answer:
The Rowlatt Act was passed in the year 1919 A.D. Therefore, option (C) is the correct answer.

The Chauri-Chaura incident took place on February 4, 1922, at Chauri Chaura in the Gorakhpur district of the United Province (modern-day Uttar Pradesh) in British India. During the Non-Cooperation Movement, a large group of protesters clashed with police, who opened fire. In retaliation, the demonstrators attacked and set fire to a police station, killing all of its occupants. This act of violence led Mahatma Gandhi to call off the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The 'Doctrine of Lapse' was an annexation policy followed by the British East India Company in India. It stated that if the ruler of a princely state under the paramountcy of the Company died without a natural male heir, his state would be annexed into the British territories.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Doctrine of Lapse is most famously associated with Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856. Although the policy was articulated by the Court of Directors of the East India Company before his tenure, Lord Dalhousie implemented it vigorously and on a large scale to expand British dominion in India. Several states were annexed under this policy, including Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur (1854), and Jhansi (1854). This policy was one of the major causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
Step 3: Final Answer:
The 'Doctrine of Lapse' is associated with Lord Dalhousie. Therefore, option (D) is the correct answer.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The book "My Experiments with Truth" is a famous autobiography of a prominent leader of the Indian independence movement. The question asks to identify this author.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
"The Story of My Experiments with Truth" is the autobiography of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi. The book covers his life from early childhood up to the year 1921. It was originally written in Gujarati and was published in weekly installments in his journal 'Navjivan' from 1925 to 1929. It is a detailed account of his personal life, moral and spiritual journey, and the development of his philosophy of Satyagraha (non-violent resistance).
Step 3: Final Answer:
The author of "My Experiments with Truth" is Mahatma Gandhi. Therefore, option (A) is the correct answer.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks for the year the Simon Commission arrived in India. It's important to distinguish between the year the commission was formed and the year it arrived.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Indian Statutory Commission, popularly known as the Simon Commission, was a group of seven British Members of Parliament.


Formation: The commission was constituted in Britain in November 1927.

Arrival: The commission officially arrived in British India on February 3, 1928.

The options provided are 1927, 1942, 1943, and 1944. The years in the 1940s are incorrect as they relate to the Quit India Movement and the final phase of the freedom struggle.
Although the commission arrived in 1928, this year is not an option. The closest and most relevant date among the choices is 1927, the year the commission was formed. In the context of multiple-choice questions where the exact answer is missing, the year of its formation (1927) is often considered the intended answer.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Given the available options, 1927 A.D. is the most plausible answer, referring to the year the commission was appointed.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
This question asks to identify the author of the famous book 'The Discovery of India'.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
'The Discovery of India' (Bharat Ek Khoj) was written by Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India.
He wrote the book during his imprisonment in 1942–1945 at Ahmednagar Fort in present-day Maharashtra. The book provides a broad view of Indian history, culture, and philosophy, starting from ancient times.
Let's consider the other authors:


V.D. Savarkar: Wrote 'The Indian War of Independence, 1857'.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Wrote 'The Arctic Home in the Vedas' and 'Gita Rahasya'.

Mahatma Gandhi: Wrote his autobiography, 'The Story of My Experiments with Truth', and 'Hind Swaraj'.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The author of 'The Discovery of India' is Jawaharlal Nehru. Therefore, option (D) is the correct answer.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks about the historical value and significance of the surveys conducted by Francis Buchanan in early colonial India.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The accounts and surveys conducted by Francis Buchanan (an official of the British East India Company in the early 19th century) are immensely valuable to historians for several reasons:
\begin{itemize}[noitemsep] \item Detailed Primary Source: Buchanan's surveys provide one of the most detailed and systematic accounts of the conditions in various parts of India (like Bengal, Bihar, and Mysore) during the early colonial period. \item Comprehensive Information: His reports were encyclopedic in nature. They contained information on topography, soil, minerals, agriculture, industries, trade, social customs, castes, religious practices, and local histories. \item Snapshot of a Society in Transition: His work captures a picture of Indian society just as British influence was becoming dominant, providing a crucial baseline for historians to study the changes that occurred under colonial rule. \item Economic History: Historians use his statistical data to study topics like de-industrialization and the state of the rural economy before the full impact of British policies was felt. \end{itemize} Critical Perspective: While invaluable, historians also use his accounts with caution. Buchanan wrote from a colonial perspective, and his surveys were often intended to identify resources that the East India Company could exploit. His understanding and descriptions of Indian society were shaped by his colonial mindset.

Step 3: Final Answer:
Buchanan's accounts are extremely valuable as a detailed primary source providing comprehensive information on the economy, society, and culture of early 19th-century India, though they must be interpreted critically due to their colonial perspective.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks to name the last person to hold the title of Viceroy of India, representing the British Crown before India's independence.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The last Viceroy of India was Lord Mountbatten (Louis Mountbatten).
He was appointed in February 1947 with the specific task of overseeing the transfer of power from British to Indian hands. He presided over the partition of British India into the independent nations of India and Pakistan in August 1947. After independence, the title of Viceroy was abolished, and Mountbatten stayed on briefly as the first Governor-General of the Dominion of India.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The last Viceroy of India was Lord Mountbatten.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The Rebellion of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian Independence, began with a mutiny of sepoys in the cantonment town of Meerut.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The rebellion officially broke out in Meerut on the evening of 10th May, 1857. On this day, sepoys of the 3rd Bengal Light Cavalry revolted against their British officers, broke open the jail to free their eighty-five comrades who had been imprisoned for refusing to use the greased cartridges, and then marched towards Delhi. [39, 43]

Step 3: Final Answer:
The correct date for the start of the rebellion in Meerut is 10th May, 1857. This corresponds to option (iv) in the original image, which is option (D).

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy followed by the British East India Company in India. It stated that if the ruler of a princely state under British suzerainty died without a natural heir, the state would be annexed by the British.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Doctrine of Lapse is most famously associated with Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856. Although the policy existed before him, he implemented it vigorously to expand British territory in India. Several prominent states, including Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur, and Jhansi (1853), were annexed under this doctrine. [4] This policy was one of the major political causes of the 1857 Revolt.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The policy was introduced and widely applied by Lord Dalhousie. Therefore, option (i) in the original image, which is option (A), is the correct answer.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The Rebellion of 1857 was a complex event with multiple causes, which can be categorized into long-term underlying causes and an immediate trigger.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
1) Use of greased cartridges: This was the immediate cause of the revolt. [20] A rumor spread among the sepoys that the cartridges for the new Enfield rifle were greased with cow and pig fat. This offended the religious sentiments of both Hindu and Muslim soldiers and acted as the spark that ignited the mutiny.
2) Economic exploitation of Indians by British policies: This was a fundamental long-term cause. British policies, such as heavy taxation, ruinous land revenue systems, the drain of wealth, and the destruction of traditional Indian industries, led to widespread economic hardship and resentment among all classes of people, from peasants to zamindars.
Both factors were crucial. The economic exploitation created the conditions for a large-scale rebellion, while the greased cartridges provided the immediate provocation.

Step 3: Final Answer:
Since both were major reasons for the revolt, the correct option is (iv) in the original image, which is (D).

Step 1: Understanding the Concepts:
This question requires knowledge of specific terms related to revenue systems and tribal societies in Indian history.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's match each term:
a) Khiraj: This was a type of land tax levied on agricultural land, particularly in the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods, often on non-Muslims. So, a matches with 4.
b) Hoe (Kudal): The hoe was the primary agricultural tool used by the Paharias (Hill people) of the Rajmahal hills, who practiced shifting cultivation (jhum). It became a symbol of their way of life in contrast to the plough. So, b matches with 3.
c) Plough: The plough was a symbol of settled agriculture. The British encouraged the Santhals to settle in the valleys of the Rajmahal hills and practice plough agriculture. Thus, the plough became a symbol of the Santhals. So, c matches with 2.
d) Diku: This was a term used by tribal communities like the Santhals and Mundas to refer to outsiders, including moneylenders, traders, zamindars, and contractors, whom they saw as exploiters. So, d matches with 1.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The correct matching is a-4, b-3, c-2, d-1. This corresponds to option (iii) in the original image, which is option (C).

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The Permanent Settlement was a land revenue system introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. It aimed to create a stable revenue source for the British East India Company.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The primary objective and benefit of the Permanent Settlement for the East India Company was to ensure a stable and fixed income. The revenue to be paid by the zamindars (landlords) was fixed in perpetuity. This meant that regardless of agricultural output or price fluctuations, the Company was guaranteed a fixed sum annually, which simplified their financial planning and administration.
Let's look at the other options:
(A) is incorrect because the settlement fixed the revenue, it did not increase the burden on the company; the burden was on the zamindars to collect and pay it.
(B) is incorrect as the system was often exploitative, leading to peasant distress rather than cooperation.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The main advantage for the company was securing a fixed and regular revenue stream. This corresponds to option (iii) in the original image, which is option (C).

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks for an explanation of the 'Sunset Law' in the context of British India.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Sunset Law was a crucial and strict provision associated with the Permanent Settlement of land revenue introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal in 1793.
The law stipulated that the zamindars (landlords) had to pay their fixed annual revenue to the East India Company by sunset on a specified date. If a zamindar failed to make the payment by this exact deadline, their zamindari (land estate) was liable to be auctioned off by the government to recover the arrears. This law was very rigid and did not allow for any delays, even in cases of crop failure. It led to many traditional zamindars losing their lands, which were then often bought by merchants and moneylenders from the cities.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The Sunset Law was a rule under the Permanent Settlement (1793) which stated that if a zamindar's revenue payment was not received by sunset on the due date, their estate would be sold at auction.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question refers to the leadership of the Santhal Rebellion (also known as Santhal Hul), a major tribal uprising against British colonial rule and the zamindari system.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Santhal Rebellion of 1855-56 was led by four brothers: Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu. Sidhu and Kanhu were the principal leaders who mobilized around 10,000 Santhals to declare a rebellion against the exploitative practices of the British East India Company, zamindars, and moneylenders. Since both Sidhu and Kanhu are listed as options and were the main leaders, the correct choice would be the one that includes both.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The Santhal Rebellion was prominently led by the brothers Sidhu and Kanhu. Therefore, the correct option is (D) Both (i) and (ii).

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks to identify the person who first used the title 'Father of the Nation' for Mahatma Gandhi.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Subhash Chandra Bose was the first person to address Mahatma Gandhi as the 'Father of the Nation'. He did so in a radio address broadcast from Singapore on June 4, 1944. In this broadcast on Azad Hind Radio, Bose sought Gandhi's blessings for the war for India's liberation he was fighting.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The title 'Father of the Nation' was first used for Mahatma Gandhi by Subhash Chandra Bose. Therefore, option (D) is the correct answer.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks for the starting date of the Quit India Movement, a pivotal event in the final phase of India's struggle for independence.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Quit India Movement, also known as the August Movement or 'Bharat Chhodo Andolan', was officially launched by Mahatma Gandhi at the Bombay session of the All-India Congress Committee on August 8, 1942. In his speech at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Gandhi gave the famous call to "Do or Die". The movement was formally set to begin on August 9, 1942, but the British government arrested Gandhi and other major Congress leaders in the early hours of that day.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The Quit India Movement was launched in August 1942. Therefore, option (A) is the correct answer.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks to identify the person associated with the founding of the Ramakrishna Mission.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Ramakrishna Mission is a Hindu religious and spiritual organization that forms the core of the Ramakrishna Movement. It was founded on May 1, 1897, by Swami Vivekananda, who was the chief disciple of the 19th-century saint Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. The mission's objectives are twofold: to spread the teachings of Vedanta as embodied by Ramakrishna and to carry out extensive educational and philanthropic work to improve the social conditions of the Indian people.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The Ramakrishna Mission was founded by and is directly related to Swami Vivekananda. Hence, option (C) is the correct answer.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question links a specific historical event, the Chauri-Chaura incident, to the withdrawal of a major national movement during India's freedom struggle.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Chauri-Chaura incident took place on February 4, 1922, in the Gorakhpur district of the United Provinces (modern-day Uttar Pradesh). A large group of protesters participating in the Non-Cooperation Movement clashed with police, who opened fire. In retaliation, the demonstrators attacked and set fire to the police station, killing 22 policemen. Deeply disturbed by this act of violence, Mahatma Gandhi, a staunch advocate of non-violence (Ahimsa), decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement on February 12, 1922.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The Non-cooperation Movement was withdrawn by Mahatma Gandhi following the violent Chauri-Chaura incident. Hence, option (C) is the correct choice.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks for the author of a specific book about the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The title of the book frames the rebellion as the 'First War of Independence'.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The book titled "The Indian War of Independence, 1857" was written by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar. It was first published in 1909. Savarkar's work was one of the first to describe the 1857 rebellion not as a mere 'sepoy mutiny' but as a national war for independence. The book was considered revolutionary and was banned by the British Raj even before its publication. It is worth noting that Karl Marx also wrote a book with a similar title, 'The First Indian War of Independence 1857-59'. However, among the given options, V.D. Savarkar is the correct author.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The author of 'India's First War of Independence' is V. D. Savarkar. Therefore, option (B) is the correct answer.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question is about identifying the British Governor-General who introduced the Permanent Settlement, a land revenue system, in Bengal.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Permanent Settlement, also known as the Zamindari System, was introduced in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in 1793 by Lord Cornwallis, who was the Governor-General of Bengal at the time. This system was an agreement between the East India Company and the Zamindars (landlords) to fix the land revenue permanently. The aim was to ensure a stable and regular income for the Company and encourage landlords to invest in agricultural improvements.

Step 3: Final Answer:
The Permanent Settlement system in Bengal was implemented by Lord Cornwallis. Thus, option (B) is correct.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks to identify the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). The ASI is the premier organization for archaeological research and protection of the cultural heritage of the nation.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The Archaeological Survey of India was founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham, who also became its first Director-General. He is often referred to as the "Father of Indian Archaeology". His work involved extensive surveys and documentation of ancient sites, which laid the foundation for future archaeological research in India. John Marshall, another prominent figure, served as Director-General from 1902 to 1928 and is known for the discoveries of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.

Step 3: Final Answer:
Based on the historical establishment of the ASI, Sir Alexander Cunningham was its first Director General. Therefore, option (C) is the correct answer.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The Indian Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian Independence, was a major uprising against the rule of the British East India Company. It was the culmination of accumulated discontent that had been building for over a century. The causes are typically categorized for better understanding.

Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The main reasons for the Revolt of 1857 can be classified as follows: \begin{itemize} \item Political Causes: \begin{itemize} \item Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie's policy of annexing states where a ruler died without a natural heir (e.g., Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi) caused widespread resentment among the Indian princes. \item Annexation of Awadh (1856): The annexation on grounds of 'misgovernance' was deeply resented, as Awadh was a loyal ally, and it led to unemployment for thousands of nobles, soldiers, and retainers. \item Disrespect to the Mughal Emperor: The British decision that the successors of Bahadur Shah Zafar would have to leave the Red Fort and lose their imperial titles angered many Muslims. \end{itemize} \item Economic Causes: \begin{itemize} \item Ruin of Indian Trade: British policies favored English goods, leading to the de-industrialization of India and the ruin of artisans and craftsmen. \item Land Revenue Policies: Systems like the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari led to heavy taxation, loss of land for peasants, and enrichment of moneylenders. \item Drain of Wealth: The one-way flow of wealth from India to Britain impoverished the country. \end{itemize} \item Socio-Religious Causes: \begin{itemize} \item Interference in Social Customs: Reforms like the abolition of Sati (1829) and the Widow Remarriage Act (1856) were seen by orthodox sections as an attack on their religion and culture. \item Activities of Christian Missionaries: The open support given to Christian missionaries and the fear of forced conversions created widespread alarm. \item Racial Discrimination: Indians were treated as inferior and subjected to humiliation, which fueled racial antagonism. \end{itemize} \item Military Causes: \begin{itemize} \item Service Conditions: Indian sepoys were paid less than their British counterparts, had poor promotion prospects, and were treated with contempt. \item General Service Enlistment Act (1856): This act required new recruits to serve overseas if required, which was a taboo ('loss of caste') for many high-caste Hindus. \end{itemize} \item Immediate Cause: \begin{itemize} \item The Greased Cartridges: The introduction of the new Enfield rifle, whose cartridges were rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat, was the final spark. Loading the rifle required biting the cartridge, which was offensive to both Hindus (who revere the cow) and Muslims (who consider the pig unclean). \end{itemize} \end{itemize}

Step 3: Final Answer:
The Revolt of 1857 was a complex event triggered by a multitude of factors. While the greased cartridges provided the immediate spark, the deep-seated resentment caused by British political annexations, economic exploitation, social interference, and military discrimination created the combustible material for the widespread revolution.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
यह ब्रिटिश ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी द्वारा भारतीय रियासतों को अपने साम्राज्य में मिलाने की एक आक्रामक राजनीतिक नीति थी।
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
राज्य हड़प नीति (Doctrine of Lapse) को लॉर्ड डलहौजी ने लागू किया था। इसके मुख्य बिंदु थे:
- यदि किसी भारतीय शासक की मृत्यु बिना किसी प्राकृतिक उत्तराधिकारी (पुत्र) के हो जाती थी, तो वह अपनी रियासत किसी को गोद नहीं दे सकता था।
- ऐसी स्थिति में वह राज्य स्वतः ही ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य का हिस्सा बन जाता था।
- इस नीति के तहत सतारा, झाँसी, नागपुर और संबलपुर जैसी रियासतों को हड़प लिया गया।
Step 3: Final Answer:
राज्य हड़प नीति डलहौजी द्वारा शुरू की गई एक व्यवस्था थी जिसके तहत बिना वारिस वाले राज्यों को ब्रिटिश शासन में मिला लिया जाता था।

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
1857 का विद्रोह अचानक हुई कोई घटना नहीं थी, बल्कि यह ब्रिटिश शासन के प्रति वर्षों से संचित असंतोष का परिणाम था।
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
विद्रोह के दो प्रमुख कारण निम्नलिखित हैं:
1. धार्मिक कारण: सैनिकों को दी जाने वाली 'एनफील्ड राइफल' के कारतूसों में गाय और सूअर की चर्बी होने की अफवाह ने हिंदू और मुस्लिम दोनों सैनिकों की धार्मिक भावनाओं को आहत किया।
2. राजनीतिक कारण: लॉर्ड डलहौजी की 'व्यपगत का सिद्धांत' (Doctrine of Lapse) नीति के तहत झाँसी, सतारा और नागपुर जैसी रियासतों का ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य में विलय कर लिया गया, जिससे भारतीय शासकों में गहरा असंतोष फैल गया।
Step 3: Final Answer:
विद्रोह के दो प्रमुख कारण चर्बी वाले कारतूसों का मुद्दा और डलहौजी की साम्राज्यवादी विलय नीति (गोद निषेध नीति) थे।

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
मेहताब चन्द का संबंध औपनिवेशिक काल के दौरान बंगाल के प्रमुख जमींदार परिवारों से था।
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
महाराजा मेहताब चन्द बर्दवान (वर्धमान) के राजा थे। उनके शासनकाल के दौरान ही 1793 में लॉर्ड कॉर्नवालिस द्वारा 'इस्तमरारी बंदोबस्त' (स्थायी बंदोबस्त) लागू किया गया था। यद्यपि उनकी जमींदारी पर संकट आया था, लेकिन उन्होंने अपनी बुद्धिमत्ता से अपनी संपत्तियों को नीलामी से बचा लिया था।
Step 3: Final Answer:
महाराजा मेहताब चन्द बर्दवान (बंगाल) के महाराजा थे।

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
सहायक संधि (Subsidiary Alliance) ब्रिटिश ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी और भारतीय रियासतों के बीच एक ऐसी संधि थी, जिसने भारतीय राजाओं को पूरी तरह से अंग्रेजों पर निर्भर बना दिया।
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
लॉर्ड वेलेजली (1798-1805) ने भारत में ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य के विस्तार के लिए सहायक संधि प्रणाली को व्यापक रूप से लागू किया। इस संधि को स्वीकार करने वाले राज्य को अपनी सुरक्षा के लिए ब्रिटिश सेना रखनी पड़ती थी और एक ब्रिटिश रेजिडेंट को अपने दरबार में रखना अनिवार्य था।
Step 3: Final Answer:
‘सहायक संधि’ लागू करने का श्रेय लॉर्ड वेलेजली को जाता है।

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
1857 का विद्रोह ब्रिटिश शासन के विरुद्ध पहला बड़ा सशस्त्र विद्रोह था। भारत के अलग-अलग हिस्सों में स्थानीय नेताओं ने अपनी रियासतों को बचाने के लिए इसका नेतृत्व किया था।
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
अवध की राजधानी लखनऊ में विद्रोह का नेतृत्व बेगम हजरत महल ने किया था। उन्होंने अपने अल्पवयस्क पुत्र बिरजिस कादिर को नवाब घोषित कर दिया और अंग्रेजों के खिलाफ कड़ा संघर्ष किया। अंततः लखनऊ पर अंग्रेजों का कब्जा होने के बाद वे नेपाल चली गईं।
Step 3: Final Answer:
लखनऊ में 1857 की क्रांति का नेतृत्व बेगम हजरत महल कर रही थीं।