Thermodynamics

Answer:

ΔG < 0 (Negative Gibbs free energy change)

Explanation:

The change in Gibbs free energy is given by:

- A process is **spontaneous** when ΔG is **negative**. - It is **non-spontaneous** when ΔG is **positive**. - It is at **equilibrium** when ΔG = 0.

Given, pH = 11.2

We know the relation between pH and pOH:

Substituting the given pH value:

Now, the hydroxide ion concentration is given by:

Substituting the value of pOH:

We can simplify this as:

Since ,

Therefore, the hydroxide ion concentration is:

A sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer effectively maintains a stable pH by neutralizing added acids or bases.
- When (acid) is introduced, it is consumed by the acetate ions , which mitigates any decrease in pH.
- Conversely, when (base) is added, it reacts with the acetic acid , preventing an increase in pH.

Derivation of the expression for maximum work during isothermal reversible expansion of an ideal gas:
The work done in an infinitesimal expansion of an ideal gas at constant temperature is given by: Using the ideal gas equation, Substituting this into the expression for work, Integrating from the initial volume to the final volume : Since the integral of is , we get: This equation represents the maximum work obtainable during the isothermal reversible expansion of an ideal gas.

Extensive Properties: Extensive properties are those that depend on the quantity of matter present in a system. These properties change when the amount of substance in the system is altered.
Examples:
- Mass
- Volume
- Energy
- Enthalpy
Intensive Properties: Intensive properties are independent of the amount of substance in the system. These properties remain constant, regardless of the quantity of matter.
Examples:
- Temperature
- Density
- Pressure
- Refractive index

Osmotic pressure is defined as the pressure needed to halt the transfer of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated one. This pressure can be calculated using the van’t Hoff equation: where:
- = osmotic pressure,
- = molar concentration of the solute in the solution,
- = universal gas constant , - = temperature in Kelvin.
To determine the Molar Mass using Osmotic Pressure: The molar concentration is described by: with being the moles of solute, the mass of the solute, and the molar mass of the solute.
Rearranging the osmotic pressure equation provides: To find : By measuring osmotic pressure , and knowing the mass and volume of the solution, the molar mass of the solute can be accurately calculated.

Henry's law is expressed as follows: Definitions:
- represents the solubility of the gas in mol dm ,
- is Henry's constant, here ,
- stands for the partial pressure of the gas, .
Calculating the solubility:

Transuranium elements are those with atomic numbers greater than uranium and are typically synthesized artificially in laboratories. Atomic Numbers of Some Transuranium Elements:

• Neptunium (Np) - 93
• Plutonium (Pu) - 94
• Americium (Am) - 95
• Curium (Cm) - 96
• Berkelium (Bk) - 97
• Californium (Cf) - 98

Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions in living organisms. They are usually proteins and function by reducing the activation energy required for biochemical reactions.
Characteristics of Enzymes:

• They are highly specific in their action.
• They operate under mild conditions (such as moderate temperature and pH).
• They can be regulated by inhibitors or activators.

Examples of Enzymes:

• Amylase: Breaks down starch into maltose.
• Lipase: Converts lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
• Catalase: Decomposes hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

Step 1: Recall the formula for work done.

Work done at constant pressure is:

Step 2: Calculate the change in volume.

Initial volume = Final volume =

Step 3: Substitute values.

Given pressure:

Step 4: Convert units.

Since :

Final Answer:

The work done is