Attitude And Social Cognition

सामाजिक पहचान सिद्धांत बताता है कि हमारी ``मैं'' पहचान काफी हद तक ``हम'' से बनती है। अंतः–समूह पक्षधरता में अपने समूह के सदस्यों को अधिक सकारात्मक मानना, संसाधन–वितरण में प्राथमिकता देना और गलतियों को क्षमा करना शामिल हो सकता है। इसका लाभ एकजुटता है, पर बाह्य–समूह के प्रति पूर्वाग्रह और भेदभाव का जोखिम बढ़ता है। विद्यालय या कार्यस्थल में मिश्रित टीम, साझा लक्ष्य और समान मानकों से नकारात्मक प्रतिस्पर्धा सहयोग में बदली जा सकती है।

स्टेप 1: ABC मॉडल.
मनोवृत्ति के तीन घटक—Affective (भाव), Behavioral (व्यवहार), Cognitive (मान्यताएँ)।
स्टेप 2: असंगत विकल्प.
स्मृति मनोवृत्ति का मूल घटक नहीं है।
स्टेप 3: निष्कर्ष.
अतः (3) सही उत्तर है।

स्टेप 1: परिभाषा.
पूर्वाग्रह (prejudice) किसी समूह/व्यक्ति के प्रति नकारात्मक मनोवृत्ति है।
स्टेप 2: अन्य विकल्प.
यह न मूल प्रवृत्ति है न संवेग/प्रेरणा—यह attitude का ही एक विशिष्ट रूप है।
स्टेप 3: निष्कर्ष.
अतः (1) सही है।

स्टेप 1: ऐतिहासिक तथ्य.
Walter Lippmann (1922) ने "stereotypes" शब्द का लोकप्रिय उपयोग किया—मानसिक "pictures in our heads"。
स्टेप 2: निष्कर्ष.
अतः (3) सही है।

स्टेप 1: अवधारणा.
Leon Festinger ने Cognitive Dissonance का सिद्धांत दिया—विचार/आचरण में असंगति होने पर असहजता बढ़ती है और व्यक्ति उसे घटाने का प्रयत्न करता है।
स्टेप 2: निष्कर्ष.
अतः (2) सही उत्तर है।

स्टेप 1: मॉडल को समझें.
Heider का P–O–X मॉडल—Person (P), Other (O), X (वस्तु/विषय)—तीन इकाइयाँ बनाकर संतुलन/असंतुलन दिखाता है।
स्टेप 2: निष्कर्ष.
अतः कथन "तीन व्यक्ति/इकाइयाँ" सही है।

Prejudice is a negative, preconceived evaluation of a group and its members, often rooted in stereotypes and resistant to contrary evidence. “Attitude” is the broader term (which can be positive/neutral/negative), and “interest” concerns preference or curiosity—not hostility toward a group.

Heider introduced the idea of {balance} in attitude structures in his work culminating in the classic book {The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations} (1958). Although an influential 1946 paper set the stage, standard texts/date-keys attribute the theory’s statement to 1958. Hence option (C).

An In-group refers to a group of people who share common characteristics, interests, or goals and see themselves as part of a collective entity. Members of an in-group tend to favor one another, often forming strong bonds of identity, loyalty, and support. This concept is used to understand social dynamics, group formation, and can be contrasted with out-groups (groups seen as outsiders or rivals).

Attitude consists of three main components:

Cognitive component: This refers to beliefs, thoughts, or ideas about an object or situation. It reflects what we think about something.
Affective component: This refers to feelings or emotions associated with the object of the attitude. It reflects how we feel about something.
Behavioral component: This refers to how we act or behave towards an object or situation. It reflects our intention or actions in response to the attitude.

The halo effect is a cognitive bias where our overall impression of a person influences how we perceive their specific traits or qualities. For example, if we find someone attractive or likable, we are more likely to view other aspects of their personality, such as intelligence or kindness, in a favorable light. This effect can lead to both positive and negative biases.

Prejudice develops due to various factors, including:
1. Socialization: Cultural and family influences can instill prejudiced views from an early age.
2. Group membership: In-group favoritism and out-group discrimination contribute to the formation of prejudices against others.
3. Stereotyping: Simplified and generalized beliefs about others lead to biased judgments.
4. Scapegoating: Prejudice may arise from blaming others for personal or societal issues.
5. Media and societal influences: Biased portrayals in the media reinforce negative stereotypes.
6. Fear and ignorance: Lack of understanding or unfamiliarity with different groups can fuel prejudiced attitudes.

Obedience refers to the act of following orders or instructions given by an authority figure. It involves a change in behavior in response to the perceived power of a legitimate authority. Obedience is an essential part of social life but can lead to harmful actions if the authority figure’s commands are unethical or immoral. Famous experiments by Stanley Milgram demonstrated the power of authority over individual morals.

Step 1: Recall core structural elements. Group structure typically comprises roles, norms, status/positions, communication patterns, and cohesion.
Step 2: Compare options. Role and Norm are canonical elements. Prestige is more of an {individual reputation} or esteem, not a structural building block defining the group’s formal patterning (status is the formal element, not “prestige”).
Step 3: Conclude. Thus Prestige is the best “not an element” choice.

Step 1: Define in-group. An in-group is the group a person psychologically identifies with (“we” feeling).
Step 2: Map features. Members show sympathy/positive regard, cooperation to pursue common goals, and shared beliefs/norms that guide behaviour.
Step 3: Conclude. All listed features characterize in-groups.

Step 1: Define cohesiveness. Cohesiveness is the degree of attraction and commitment members feel toward the group.
Step 2: Factors. Attractiveness of group/activities, investment of effort (effort justification), and external threat/danger (which fosters unity against an out-group) all increase cohesion.
Step 3: Conclude. Each option is a recognized antecedent; thus “All of these.”

Step 1: Key concept. W. G. Sumner introduced in-group (a group one identifies with) and out-group (a group perceived as “they”), explaining ethnocentrism and intergroup bias.
Step 2: Eliminate distractors. Cooley discussed primary/secondary groups; Lewin pioneered field theory and group dynamics, not this classification.
Step 3: Conclude.

Stereotypes often arise from limited information/ignorance, salient negative experiences (availability bias), and ego-defensive attributions after failure (“they” are to blame). Since each listed factor can foster stereotyping, {none} of them is a “non-factor.” Hence (D).

Heider’s P–O–X triad: P = perceiver (the “Person”), O = {Other} person, and X = attitude Object (issue, idea, thing). Balance depends on the product of the signed relations among P, O and X. Thus, ‘X’ denotes the {object}.

S. M. Mohsin proposed a two-step view of attitude change—(i) exposure/attention and (ii) internalization leading to stable change—highlighting the sequential nature of persuasion. Festinger is associated with {cognitive dissonance}; Heider with {balance} (P–O–X) theory. Therefore (C) is correct.

The classic ABC model of attitude includes: Affective (feelings), Behavioural (action tendency), and Cognitive (beliefs). Since all three listed components are legitimate “ingredients,” {none} of them is “not” an ingredient—hence (D).

Step 1: Multiple motives. People affiliate for safety and support (security), recognition (status), and to enhance self-esteem/belongingness; also for power, information and goal attainment.
Step 2: Therefore select “all”. Since each listed motive is valid, the inclusive option is correct.
Step 3: Conclude.