Psychotherapy

Step 1: सिद्धान्त पहचान.
Freud का कार्य Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic मॉडल पर आधारित है — अचेतन, मनो-यौन अवस्थाएँ, रक्षा-यंत्रणा इत्यादि।

Step 2: निष्कर्ष.
इसलिए विकल्प (3) सही है; (1) & (2) क्रमशः cognitive और behaviorist धाराएँ हैं।

स्टेप 1: सिद्धांत का मूल विचार.
कार्ल रोजर्स ने व्यक्ति/क्लायंट केन्द्रित चिकित्सा (Person/Client-Centered Therapy) का प्रतिपादन किया, जिसमें चिकित्सक का मुख्य कार्य सहानुभूतिपूर्ण, स्वीकारात्मक और प्रामाणिक वातावरण प्रदान करना होता है।
स्टेप 2: अन्य विकल्पों से तुलना.
मनोविश्लेषण (psychoanalytic) फ्रायड से, व्यवहार चिकित्सा (behavior therapy) वॉटसन/स्किनर से जुड़ी है; ये रोजर्स के नहीं हैं।
स्टेप 3: निष्कर्ष.
अतः सही उत्तर क्लायंट केन्द्रित चिकित्सा है।

स्टेप 1: आधार को समझें.
व्यवहार चिकित्सा मुख्यतः अधिगम (Learning) के सिद्धांतों—शास्त्रीय अनुबन्धन, प्रचालन अनुबन्धन, मॉडलन—पर आधारित है।
स्टेप 2: क्यों सही है.
लक्षणों को सीखे हुए प्रत्युत्तर माना जाता है, इसलिए उन्हें पुनः-सीखने/अन-सीखने की प्रक्रियाओं से बदला जाता है।
स्टेप 3: निष्कर्ष.
इसलिए मूल आधार अधिगम सिद्धांत ही है।

स्टेप 1: तकनीक का अर्थ.
क्रमबद्ध असंवेदीकरण (Systematic Desensitization) भय/फोबिया को धीरे-धीरे कम संवेदनशील बनाने की प्रक्रिया है—विश्रान्ति + भय-सीढ़ी का संयोजन।
स्टेप 2: सैद्धान्तिक आधार.
यह अधिगम/प्रतिस्थापन सिद्धान्त पर आधारित व्यवहार-चिकित्सकीय तकनीक है।
स्टेप 3: निष्कर्ष.
अतः यह व्यवहार चिकित्सा में प्रयुक्त होती है।

स्टेप 1: मनोचिकित्सा का व्यापक लक्ष्य.
मनोचिकित्सा का लक्ष्य व्यक्ति को अनुकूल, रचनात्मक समायोजन सिखाना और जीवन-शैली/समस्या-समाधान को सुधारना है।
स्टेप 2: क्यों (b) नहीं.
विध्वंसात्मक समायोजन maladaptive है; मनोचिकित्सा इसका समर्थन नहीं करती।
स्टेप 3: निष्कर्ष.
इसलिए (a) और (c) दोनों उद्देश्य हैं।

स्टेप 1: पहचान.
उद्बोधक/तर्कशील-भावात्मक चिकित्सा (Rational-Emotive Therapy/REBT) के प्रवर्तक अल्बर्ट एलिस हैं।
स्टेप 2: भेद.
विक्टर फ्रेंकल = लोगोथेरेपी; फ्रायड = मनोविश्लेषण।
स्टेप 3: निष्कर्ष.
अतः सही उत्तर अल्बर्ट एलिस है।

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks to classify "modelling" within the major schools of psychotherapy. Modelling is a therapeutic technique where a client learns new behaviors by observing and imitating a model (either the therapist or another person).
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Modelling is a core concept of Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory, which is a cornerstone of behaviorism and behavior therapy. The theory posits that learning can occur through observation, imitation, and modelling, without direct reinforcement. Because it focuses on observable behaviors and learning principles, it falls squarely under the umbrella of Behaviour Therapy.
(A) Psychodynamic therapy focuses on unconscious conflicts and insight.
(C) Humanistic-existential therapy emphasizes self-awareness, free will, and personal growth.
Neither of these approaches uses modelling as a primary technique.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Modelling is a technique rooted in learning theory and is therefore a type of Behaviour therapy.

Drug therapy, also known as pharmacotherapy or psychopharmacology in the context of mental health, is a form of biomedical therapy that uses psychoactive medications to treat psychological disorders. The primary goal of drug therapy is to manage or reduce symptoms by altering brain chemistry.
These medications work by influencing the levels and activity of neurotransmitters—the chemical messengers that transmit signals between nerve cells (neurons) in the brain. Different classes of drugs target different neurotransmitter systems to treat specific disorders.
Major categories of psychiatric medications include:

Antidepressants: Used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and other conditions. They often affect neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine.
Antipsychotics: Used to manage psychosis (including delusions and hallucinations), primarily in disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. They typically work by blocking dopamine receptors.
Anxiolytics (Anti-anxiety medications): Used to treat anxiety disorders. Benzodiazepines are a common type that enhances the effect of the neurotransmitter GABA.
Mood Stabilizers: Used to treat bipolar disorder by managing mood swings.
Stimulants: Used to treat ADHD by increasing levels of dopamine and norepinephrine.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks to identify the founder of the psychodynamic approach to therapy. This school of thought emphasizes the influence of unconscious psychological processes on human behavior.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
(C) Sigmund Freud: Freud is the founder of psychoanalysis, the original form of psychodynamic therapy. His theories about the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and the importance of early childhood experiences are the bedrock of all subsequent psychodynamic approaches.
(A) Carl Rogers was a founder of the humanistic approach (person-centered therapy).
(B) Gordon Allport was a prominent trait theorist of personality.
(D) John B. Watson was a founder of behaviorism.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Sigmund Freud is the person who propounded the theories and techniques that form the basis of psychodynamic therapy.

The psychoanalytical method, developed by Freud, has several merits:
1. It provides a deep understanding of unconscious processes and early childhood influences.
2. It aids in the identification of repressed emotions, unresolved conflicts, and defense mechanisms.
3. Through techniques like free association and dream analysis, it explores hidden thoughts and feelings, leading to greater self-awareness.
4. It emphasizes the therapeutic relationship, promoting emotional insight.
5. Psychoanalysis has contributed to various therapeutic approaches, shaping modern psychology and psychotherapy.

Behaviour therapy is a type of psychotherapy that aims to change potentially harmful behaviours through various techniques such as reinforcement, conditioning, and modelling. It is often used for treating phobias, addictions, and other behavioral issues.

Free association is a therapeutic technique used in psychoanalysis, particularly by Sigmund Freud. It involves the patient speaking freely about whatever comes to mind, without censorship or filtering. This method aims to uncover unconscious thoughts, desires, and emotions, providing insight into the patient's psyche.

Negative transference refers to the projection of negative feelings, emotions, or experiences onto the therapist or another person during therapy. The individual may unconsciously transfer past feelings from previous relationships onto the current one. It can hinder therapeutic progress and requires careful management by the therapist to address underlying issues.

Step 1: Identify the approach. Non-directive therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, is also known as client-centered/person-centered therapy. The therapist offers empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence, facilitating self-actualization rather than directing solutions.
Step 2: Differentiate from distractors. Gestalt therapy (Perls) emphasizes awareness and here-and-now experiments; behaviour therapy uses conditioning-based techniques—both are more directive.
Step 3: Conclude.

Step 1: Core idea. {Existential therapy} centers on meaning, freedom, authenticity and responsibility in the face of anxiety, isolation and death.
Step 2: Match founders. The approach was shaped by European {existential analysts} like Medard Boss (and earlier Binswanger) and popularized in the U.S. by Rollo May. Hence “Boss and Rollo” captures its founding lineage.
Step 3: Eliminate distractors. Carl Rogers founded {client/person-centered therapy}; Fritz Perls founded {Gestalt therapy}. Therefore (A) is correct.

Step 1: Name and origin. Systematic desensitisation (Joseph Wolpe) is a classic behaviour–therapy technique.
Step 2: Core steps. (i) build an {anxiety hierarchy}; (ii) train {relaxation}; (iii) pair relaxation with {gradual imagined or in-vivo exposure} (counterconditioning).
Step 3: Eliminate distractors. Psychoanalysis uses free association/interpretation; cognitive therapy uses cognitive restructuring—not SD.
Step 4: Conclude.

Step 1: Core microskills (Rogers + skills training).
• Communicatiottending: open posture, eye contact, paraphrasing, summarising, accurate questioning.
• Empathy: sensing and reflecting the client’s internal frame of reference—{accurate} empathy reduces defensiveness.
• Unconditional Positive Regard: non-judgmental acceptance that fosters safety and disclosure.
Step 2: Conclude. All three are integral; hence “All of these.” $ $

António Egas Moniz pioneered prefrontal leucotomy (lobotomy) in the 1930s and received the Nobel Prize (1949). Watson (behaviorism), Rogers (client-centered therapy), and Allport (personality/traits) are unrelated to the origin of psychosurgery.

Classic Freudian analysis uses free association to surface unconscious material. As treatment unfolds, clients commonly manifest resistance (avoidance/defensiveness) that must be interpreted and worked through. Hence, both are integral elements of psychoanalytic therapy.

Step 1: Identify what counts as “cognitive therapy.” Cognitive therapies treat emotional/behavior problems by changing {maladaptive thoughts}, beliefs and information-processing.
Step 2: Map the options.
• Ellis’s RET/REBT uses the A-B-C model: an {Activating event} (A) triggers {Beliefs} (B) that produce {Consequences} (C). Therapists {dispute} irrational beliefs (D) and install {effective new philosophies} (E).
• Beck’s Cognitive Therapy targets {automatic negative thoughts} and deeper {schemas}; key tools are {Socratic questioning}, {thought records}, {behavioral experiments}, and the {cognitive triad} (self–world–future).
Step 3: Rule out distractors. “None of these” is false because both RET and Beck’s CT are the two {classic} cognitive therapies.
Step 4: Conclude. $ $