Secularism

After the Second World War, newly independent countries of Asia and Africa faced several security challenges:
1. Border Conflicts: Many newly independent countries faced border disputes due to colonial boundaries that did not account for ethnic, tribal, or cultural divisions, leading to internal strife and wars.
2. Economic Instability: Countries emerging from colonial rule often had weak economies and poor infrastructure, which made it difficult to maintain national security and stability.
3. Cold War Tensions: These countries became battlegrounds for Cold War superpowers (USA and USSR) trying to extend their influence, which sometimes led to proxy wars, military interventions, and political instability.
Thus, the correct answer is (a).

The differences between Non-traditional and Traditional notions of security are:
1. Focus: Traditional security focuses on military threats and state sovereignty, while Non-traditional security emphasizes human security, including economic, environmental, and health-related issues.
2. Actors: Traditional security primarily concerns the state and its military, whereas Non-traditional security involves a broader set of actors, including international organizations, non-state actors, and civil society.
3. Scope: Traditional security is more concerned with the preservation of territorial integrity and political sovereignty, while Non-traditional security considers broader threats such as pandemics, climate change, and terrorism.
Thus, the correct answer is (b).