Ecology

- Plasmodium and Man: Parasitism (Plasmodium benefits, man harmed).
- Leopard and Lion: Competition (compete for resources).
- Clown fish and Sea-anemone: Mutualism (both benefit).
Completed chart:

- Herbivores are primary consumers.
- Primary producers are plants/phytoplankton.
- Man and lion are tertiary consumers.
- Secondary consumers are carnivores/omnivores (e.g., frogs, spiders).
Completed chart:

The energy pyramid represents the flow of energy across trophic levels in an ecosystem.
Explanation:
-The producers (plants) are at the base and have the highest energy content.
-Primary consumers (herbivores) obtain energy by consuming plants.
-Secondary and tertiary consumers feed on herbivores and other carnivores.
-Energy is lost as heat at each trophic level due to metabolic activities.
Key Features of Energy Pyramid:
-Only 10percentage of energy is passed to the next trophic level (as per the 10percentage Law).
-Energy flow is unidirectional (does not recycle).
-The pyramid is always upright, as energy decreases at higher trophic levels.

Mutualism is a type of ecological interaction in which two different species benefit from each other. Mutualism is a form of symbiotic relationship where both organisms involved derive mutual benefit. It is an important ecological interaction that promotes survival and reproduction.
Types of Mutualism:
1. Obligate Mutualism: The relationship is essential for the survival of both species.
2. Facultative Mutualism: Both species benefit, but they can survive independently.
Examples of Mutualism:
Lichen: A mutualistic association between fungi and algae/cyanobacteria.
Pollination: Bees collect nectar from flowers (food source) while aiding in pollination.
Mycorrhizae: Fungi and plant roots exchange nutrients and water.
Nitrogen Fixation: Rhizobium bacteria live in leguminous plant roots, fixing nitrogen for the plant while receiving carbohydrates.

The species-area relationship follows the equation: where:
- is species richness,
- is the area,
- and are constants.
This equation, proposed by Alexander von Humboldt, suggests that species richness increases with area but not linearly.