Basic Concepts Of Sociology

चरण 1: रचना की पहचान।
आर. के. मर्टन का निबंध "Social Structure and Anomie" 1938 में American Journal of Sociology में प्रकाशित हुआ। यह अपराध व विचलन के समाजशास्त्रीय अध्ययन की आधारभूत रचनाओं में गिना जाता है।
चरण 2: मूल तर्क समझें।
मर्टन ने दुर्कीम की एनोमी (मानदण्ड-विघटन) धारणাকে अमेरिकी संदर्भ में रूपान्तरित किया। समाज सांस्कृतिक लक्ष्य (जैसे आर्थिक सफलता) तो सबके सामने रखता है, पर वैध साधन (शिक्षा, अवसर, नौकरी) सभी को समान रूप से उपलब्ध नहीं करवाता। लक्ष्यों–साधनों के असंतुलन से तनाव/स्ट्रेन पैदा होता है और लोग पाँच प्रकार की अनुकूलनों की ओर बढ़ते हैं—
1) Conformity (लक्ष्य+ साधन+),
2) Innovation (लक्ष्य+ साधन−; उदा. अवैध कमाई),
3) Ritualism (लक्ष्य− साधन+),
4) Retreatism (लक्ष्य− साधन−),
5) Rebellion (नये लक्ष्य/साधन प्रस्तावित)।
चरण 3: निष्कर्ष।
अतः 'सोशल स्ट्रक्चर ऐण्ड एनोमी' के लेखक आर. के. मर्टन हैं; उन्होंने दिखाया कि संरचनात्मक विषमता कैसे विचलन को जन्म देती है।

चरण 1: संकल्पना स्पष्ट करें।
समाजशास्त्र में प्रतिस्पर्धा (Competition) वह प्रक्रिया है जिसमें दो या अधिक व्यक्ति/समूह एक ही सीमित लक्ष्य—जैसे पद, प्रतिष्ठा, संसाधन, बाजार—को पाने के लिए एक-दूसरे के विरोध में प्रयास करते हैं। यह आम तौर पर अव्यक्तिगत और नियम-निबंधित होती है।
चरण 2: सामाजिक प्रक्रियाओं से भेद।
सहयोग में लक्ष्य साझा और कार्य सामूहिक होता है; अनुकूलन (Accommodation) संघर्ष के बाद सहजीवी तालमेल बनाना है; समझौता विशिष्ट वार्ता-आधारित समाधान है। प्रतिस्पर्धा इनसे अलग विरोधी प्रवृत्ति है और संघर्ष (Conflict) की नरम/नियमित अभिव्यक्ति मानी जाती है।
निष्कर्ष: अतः प्रतिस्पर्धा का निकटतम सम्बन्ध संघर्ष प्रक्रिया से है, न कि सहयोग, अनुकूलन या समझौते से।

चरण 1: शब्द का अर्थ समझें।
Gerontology (जेरोन्टोलॉजी) शब्द ग्रीक geron (वृद्ध) और logos (अध्ययन/विज्ञान) से बना है। इसका तात्पर्य वृद्धावस्था, वृद्धावस्था की प्रक्रियाओं तथा वृद्ध व्यक्तियों के जीवन का बहुविषयी अध्ययन है।
चरण 2: जेरोन्टोलॉजी बनाम जेरियाट्रिक्स।
जेरोन्टोलॉजी सामाजिक, मनोवैज्ञानिक, जैविक, आर्थिक और नीतिगत पहलुओं को सम्मिलित करती है; जबकि Geriatrics (जेरियाट्रिक्स) चिकित्सा-विज्ञान की वह शाखा है जो वृद्धों की बीमारियों के उपचार पर केंद्रित रहती है।
चरण 3: विकल्प जाँचें।
बच्चों (बाल्यावस्था), युवाओं या महिलाओं से यह शब्द विशेष रूप से सम्बद्ध नहीं है। यह सीधे-सीधे वृद्धों के विज्ञान/अध्ययन को निरूपित करता है। अतः सही उत्तर विकल्प (2) वृद्धों है।

चरण 1: अवधारणा समझें।
रूढ़िगत/परम्परागत कानून (Customary Law) वे नियम हैं जो समुदाय की दीर्घकालीन प्रथाओं, रीतियों और लोक-मान्यताओं से बने होते हैं—अधिकतर अलिखित, मौखिक और सामुदायिक स्वीकृति से मान्य। इनके प्रवर्तन में पंचायत/कबीलाई परिषद, बुज़ुर्ग या कबीला-प्रधान जैसे अनौपचारिक न्याय-तंत्र काम करते हैं।
चरण 2: समाज-प्रकार से सम्बन्ध।
ऐसे कानून आदिम, जनजातीय तथा कृषक (peasant) समाजों में प्रबल होते हैं, जहाँ सामाजिक सम्बन्ध निकट-सम्बन्धी, गाँव/कबीले की एकजुटता और परम्पराओं पर टिके होते हैं। यहाँ विवाद-निवारण का उद्देश्य दंड से अधिक समरसता/समाधान होता है।
चरण 3: अन्य विकल्प क्यों नहीं।
औद्योगिक/आधुनिक/जटिल समाजों में राज्य-निर्मित संहिताबद्ध (statutory) कानून, अदालतें और औपचारिक पुलिस-तंत्र हावी रहते हैं; customary law का क्षेत्र सीमित हो जाता है। अतः सही उत्तर विकल्प (3) है।

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question refers to Auguste Comte's "Hierarchy of Sciences," which arranges scientific disciplines based on increasing complexity and decreasing generality. The science that "comes first" is the most basic and general one upon which all others are built.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Comte's hierarchy of the six fundamental sciences is as follows:
1. Mathematics (The most general and basic)
2. Astronomy
3. Physics
4. Chemistry
5. Biology
6. Sociology (The most complex and specific)
Each science in the list depends on the principles of the ones that come before it. Therefore, Mathematics is the foundational science that comes first in his hierarchy.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Mathematics comes first in Auguste Comte's hierarchical principle of sciences.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question refers to Auguste Comte's "Hierarchy of Sciences," a key concept in his positivist philosophy that organizes scientific disciplines based on their complexity and historical development.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Comte arranged the sciences in a specific order, from the most general and simple to the most particular and complex. Each science in the hierarchy depends on the laws of the science below it. His hierarchy is as follows:
1. Mathematics
2. Astronomy
3. Physics
4. Chemistry
5. Biology
6. Sociology
According to this hierarchy, Sociology is the "Queen of Sciences" as it is the most complex and the last to develop. It rests directly on the foundations of Biology, the science of living organisms. Comte often used biological analogies to describe society (e.g., social statics and dynamics as equivalent to anatomy and physiology), further highlighting the close relationship he saw between the two disciplines.
Step 3: Final Answer:
In Auguste Comte's hierarchy of sciences, sociology is placed immediately after biology, making it the subject to which sociology is closest.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks to identify the sociologist who introduced the fundamental classification of social groups into 'in-groups' and 'out-groups'.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
The distinction between in-groups and out-groups was developed by the American sociologist William Graham Sumner. In his influential 1906 book, "Folkways", he defined these terms:
- In-group: The group to which an individual belongs and identifies with, characterized by a sense of loyalty, solidarity, and "we-feeling".
- Out-group: A group to which an individual does not belong, often viewed with a sense of indifference, competition, or even hostility.
This concept is central to understanding group dynamics, identity, and intergroup relations.
Charles Horton Cooley, another sociologist listed, is known for classifying groups into primary and secondary groups.
Step 3: Final Answer:
William Graham Sumner divided groups into In-group and Out-group.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question requires identifying the individual who is not a sociologist from the given list of influential thinkers.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Let's review the contributions of each individual:
- (A) Auguste Comte: A French philosopher often regarded as the founder or "father" of sociology and positivism.
- (B) Robert MacIver: A prominent Scottish-American sociologist known for his work on social causation and his book "Society: An Introductory Analysis".
- (C) G. S. Ghurye: An Indian sociologist widely considered the "father of Indian sociology" for his pioneering work in establishing the discipline in India.
- (D) Charles Darwin: A British naturalist and biologist. He is famous for his theory of evolution by natural selection, a cornerstone of modern biology. He was not a sociologist.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Charles Darwin was a biologist, not a sociologist.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question asks for the historical period when sociology was established as a distinct academic discipline in Europe.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
- The intellectual foundations of sociology were laid during the Enlightenment in the 18th century, but it did not emerge as a formal science then.
- Sociology as a distinct discipline was born in the 19th century. The French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term "sociology" in 1838.
- The 19th century was a period of profound social upheaval due to the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. Thinkers like Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, and later Emile Durkheim and Max Weber developed systematic ways to study these societal changes, thereby establishing sociology as a separate social science.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Sociology emerged as a separate social science in the 19th century.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
This is a factual question asking for the nationality of Auguste Comte, who is widely regarded as the founder of sociology.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Auguste Comte (full name: Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte) was born in Montpellier, France, in 1798 and died in Paris, France, in 1857. He was a French philosopher who coined the term "sociology" and developed the philosophy of positivism. His life and work were deeply influenced by the social turmoil of post-revolutionary France.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Auguste Comte belonged to France.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
A youth house, or youth dormitory, is a traditional institution in many tribal societies where unmarried young people live together, learn about social customs, and participate in community life. The question asks to identify which of the options is not the name of such an institution.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
- (A) Dhumkuriya: This is the youth dormitory of the Oraon tribe of Chotanagpur.
- (B) Gitiora: This is the youth dormitory found among the Munda and Ho tribes.
- (C) Gotul: This is the well-known youth dormitory of the Muria Gond tribe of Central India.
- (D) Bhotia: This is the name of a tribal community that lives in the Himalayan regions of India and Nepal. It is the name of a tribe itself, not their youth house.
Step 3: Final Answer:
Bhotia is the name of a tribe, not a youth house.

Step 1: Understanding the Concept:
The question refers to Auguste Comte's "Law of Three Stages," which describes the evolution of human thought and society.
Step 2: Detailed Explanation:
Comte proposed that every society and every field of knowledge progresses through three distinct stages:
1. Theological Stage: In this stage, phenomena are explained by reference to supernatural beings, gods, or spirits. It is the fictitious stage.
2. Metaphysical Stage: In this stage, supernatural agents are replaced by abstract forces and essences to explain the world. It is the abstract stage.
3. Positive (or Scientific) Stage: This is the final and highest stage. Here, people seek to explain phenomena by observing, experimenting, and establishing scientific laws based on reason and evidence. The philosophy associated with this stage is Positivism.
Step 3: Final Answer:
The third and final stage of Comte's law is the Positive stage, also known as Positivism.

Auguste Comte is regarded as the father of sociology. He systematically studied social order, progress, and laws governing society and is credited with founding the discipline of sociology.

Mores are social norms that carry moral significance; violating them results in formal or informal sanctions. While norms are general behavioral rules, mores emphasize ethical obligations.

Conformity is the act of aligning one's behavior, beliefs, or attitudes with the expectations of a social group or societal norms. It often happens due to peer pressure, socialization, or the desire for social acceptance.

Step 1: Define sociology. Johnson emphasized that sociology studies human groups and their interactions rather than isolated individuals.

Step 2: Focus on groups. Social behavior, norms, institutions, and roles are best understood through collective dynamics.

Step 3: Conclude.